ASSIGNMENT NO. 1
GENERAL METHOD OF TEACHING: (8601)
WRITTEN BY: MADIHA AFZAL
PROGRAMME: B.ED (1.5)
SEMESTER: FISRT (AUTUMN-2021)
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD
Question
No:1
Give answer to the following short questions.
(i)
The
personal and professional qualities of teachers.
(ii)
Wht is a case mehtod?
(iii)
Define
and compare active learning and cooperative learning.
(iv)
What is lesson planning? Write down the five
merits of lesson planning for the teachers.
Answer:
1.
The
personal and professional qualities of teachers.
Answer
- Effective goal-setting.
- Clear communication.
- Acting as a role model.
- Adaptability and flexibility.
- Preparation.
- Self-reflection.
- Life-long learning.
- Promoting a love of learning.
Ability to develop trusting, productive
relationships. The most frequent response is that a great teacher develops
relationships with students. ...
·
Patient, caring, kind
·
Knowledge of learners
·
Dedication to teaching
·
Subject matter knowledge
2.
Good Teachers Are Strong
Communicators. ...
3.
Good Teachers Listen Well. ...
4.
Good Teachers Focus on
Collaboration. ...
5.
Good Teachers Are Adaptable. ...
6.
Good Teachers Are Engaging. ...
7.
Good Teachers Show Empathy. ...
8.
Good Teachers Have Patience. ...
9. Good Teachers Value Real-World Learning
2. Wht is a case mehtod?
Defination:
The case study
method is a learning technique in which the student is faced a particular
problem, the case. In general terms, the case study analyzes a defined problem
consisting in a real situation and uses real information as methodological
tool. Prospective case study methods are those in
which an individual or group of people is observed in order to determine
outcomes.
For
example, a group of individuals might be watched over an extended
period of time to observe the progression of a particular disease.
Case Study Examples:
There have been a number of notable case studies in the
history of psychology. Much of Freud's work and theories were developed
through the use of individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies
in psychology include:
- Anna O: Anna O.
was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a
physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's,
Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was
experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking
about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an
important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental
health treatment.
- Phineas Gage: Phineas
Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which
an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important
portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with
serious changes in both personality and behavior.
- Genie: Genie
was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study
of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language could be taught
even after critical periods for language development had been missed. Her
case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere
with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.
Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to
study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In
Genie's case, her horrific abuse had denied her the opportunity to learn
language at critical points in her development.
This is clearly not something that researchers could
ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers
the chance to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.
Case mehtod:
Cases are narratives, situations,
select data samplings, or statements that present unresolved and provocative
issues, situations, or questions (Indiana University Teaching Handbook, 2005).
The case method is a participatory, discussion-based way of learning where
students gain skills in critical thinking, communication, and group dynamics.
It is a type of problem-based learning. Often seen
in the professional schools of medicine, law, and business, the case method is
now used successfully in disciplines such as engineering, chemistry, education,
and journalism. Students can work through a case during class as a whole or in
small groups.
In addition to the definition above, the case
method of teaching (or learning):
- Is a partnership between students and
teacher as well as among students.
- Promotes more effective contextual
learning and long-term retention.
- Involves trust that students will find the
answers.
- Answers questions not only of “how” but
“why.”
- Provides students the opportunity to “walk
around the problem” and to see varied perspectives.
Types of case method:
There are a few different types of case studies that
psychologists and other researchers might utilize:
1)
Collective case studies:
These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a
group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community of people.
2)
Descriptive case studies:
These involve starting with
a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed and the information
gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
3)
Explanatory case studies:
These are often used to do causal investigations.
In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have
actually caused certain things to occur.
4)
Exploratory case studies:
These are sometimes used as a prelude to further,
more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information
before developing their research questions and hypotheses.
5)
Instrumental case studies:
These occur when the individual or group allows
researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
6)
Intrinsic case studies:
This type of case study is when
the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own
children are good examples of how an intrinsic cast study can contribute to the
development of a psychological theory.
Benefits
and Laminations:
A case study can have both strengths and weaknesses.
Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of
study is appropriate for their needs.
One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it
allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult to impossible
to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:1
- Allows researchers to collect a great deal
of information
- Give researchers the chance to collect information
on rare or unusual cases
- Allows researchers to develop hypotheses
that can be explored in experimental research
On the negative side, a case study:
- Cannot necessarily be generalized to the
larger population
- Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
- May not be scientifically rigorous
- Can lead to bias
Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they
are interested in exploring a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. The
insights gained from such research can then help the researchers develop additional
ideas and study questions that might then be explored in future studies.
3. Define and compare active learning and cooperative learning.
Active learning
Active learning is an approach to
instruction that involves actively engaging students with the course material
through discussions, problem solving, case studies, role plays and other
methods.
Active Learning Meyers and Jones (1993) define active
learning as learning environments that allow “students to talk and listen,
read, write, and reflect as they approach course content through
problem-solving exercises, informal small groups, simulations, case studies,
role playing, and other activities -- all of which require students to apply what
they are learning” Many studies show that learning is enhanced when students
become actively involved in the learning process. Instructional strategies that
engage students in the learning process stimulate critical thinking and a
greater awareness of other perspectives.
Assessing
or grading students' contributions in active learning environments is
problematic. It is extremely important that the course syllabus clearly
outlines the evaluation criteria for each assignment whether individual or
group. Students need and want to know what is expected of them.
Cooperative
Learning:
Cooperative Learning is an instructional method in which
students work in small groups to accomplish a common learning goal under the
guidance of the teacher. Cooperative learning strategies are content-free
structures that can be reused in different school contexts and we are going to
learn how to use some of them
Cooperative
Learning is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of
students to work together for the achievement of a common goal. The term
'Collaborative Learning' is often used as a synonym for cooperative learning
when, in fact, it is a separate strategy that encompasses a broader range of
group interactions such as developing learning communities, stimulating
student/faculty discussions, and encouraging electronic exchanges (Bruffee,
1993). Both approaches stress the importance of faculty and student involvement
in the learning process.
Careful
planning and preparation are essential, when integrating cooperative or
collaborative learning strategies into a course. Understanding how to form
groups, ensure positive interdependence, maintain individual accountability,
resolve group conflict, develop appropriate assignments and grading criteria,
and manage active learning environments are critical to the achievement of a
successful cooperative learning experience
4. What
is lesson planning? Write down the five merits of lesson planning for the
teachers
lesson planning :
A lesson plan is
a detailed plan of the objectives and activities for a particular class. It is an important part of the teaching and
learning process. A lesson plan reflects what a teacher wants to achieve in
each class and how it will be achieved? Planning a lesson helps a teacher to
control class time and its effective use.
A teacher’s effectiveness is usually judged by the ability to design and
implement instruction that promotes learning.
Explain:
Every teacher needs a
carefully drawn lesson plan, irrespective of the training, experience or
competency. A lesson plan is required to assist the students in achieving the
learning objectives, on the short term and long term as well. Having a lesson
is exactly like having a complete and clear picture of how a learning process
is going to take place and how students are able to grasp and retain what is
being taught to them.
Various researches have proven that pre-visualization
success in athletic competitions and business projects is a solid step in the
way of actually achieving it. The same concept applies to a classroom
engagement too.
Without having a lesson plan, this
visualization process will not work and the outcomes of the learning process
wouldn’t remotely be like what you have expected. These educators need to plan
their daily lessons in advance and adopt the most suitable teaching techniques
into a comprehensive lesson plan. Because going to classroom without lesson
plan is harmful to both the teachers and their students. Unprepared teacher
will be considered as the second rate at the job and will be viewed as
unprofessional by their colleagues, superiors, school administration and
students.
Students, who learn under the inadequately
prepared teacher, usually enjoy less than optimum knowledge received from the
teacher. Such students have low quality learning and they appreciate the lesson
concept too, hems compared with students who are highly knowledgeable and
learning under prepared educators. It is total waste of time and money and
effort when all the resources which are combined for a learning session goes
into vain due to the unprofessional management of the class. Above all,
teachers and students under this scenario generally have very low motivation to
improve.
The 10 Advantages of having a Lesson Plan
Before Going to Classroom
1. Inspiration:
A thorough lesson plan
inspired the teacher to improve the lesson plan further. You can make it better
for the purpose of achieving the lesson plan in a better way.
2. Evaluation:
A lesson plan helps the
teacher to evaluate his teaching and to compare it with set objectives. This
evaluation will help you in achieving the set targets in a better way.
3. Self-confidence:
These lesson
plans develops self-confidence in the teacher and make them to work towards
definite goal.
4. Previous
Knowledge of the Students:
A teacher can take a
proper care by considering the level and previous knowledge of the students in
your class.
5. Organized
Matter:
A teacher will
be able to finish a particular lesson in a limited time frame. This will help
him or her to make the students learn a better and precise manner.
6. Ask
Questions:
A teacher will be able to
ask proper and important questions to the students in the classroom. This will
engage the students in communication and help them in retaining the lesson.
7. Guidance:
A lesson plan works as a guide for the
teacher in the classroom. It tells you what to teach so that they can cover the entire lesson within a
limited time frame.
8. Interest:
A lesson plan creates the
interest of the students in the lesson and makes them learn with curiosity in
subject matter.
9. Stimulation:
A lesson plan
stimulates the teacher to think in an organized way. This helps you to match
the ideal standard of teaching more quickly than ever.
10. Understand the Objectives:
Through
a lesson plan, a teacher is able to understand the objectives of the lesson properly
and make his students to understand them too, with ease.
Six merits of lesson planning for the teachers:
1.
Self-confidence:
These
lesson plans develops self-confidence in the teacher and make them to work
towards definite goal.
2.
Previous Knowledge of the Students:
A
teacher can take a proper care by considering the level and previous knowledge
of the students in your class.
3.
Organized Matter:
A teacher will
be able to finish a particular lesson in a limited time frame. This will help
him or her to make the students learn a better and precise manner.
4.
Ask Questions:
A teacher will be
able to ask proper and important questions to the students in the classroom.
This will engage the students in communication and help them in retaining the
lesson.
5.
Guidance:
A lesson plan works as
a guide for the teacher in the classroom. It tells you what to teach so that
they can cover the entire lesson within a limited time frame.
6.
Interest;
A lesson plan creates the
interest of the students in the lesson and makes them learn with curiosity in
subject matter.
Question
NO:2
Explain the factors of effective teaching?
Answer:
Many Factors Determine
Good and Effective Teaching
1.
An engaging
personality.
2.
A passion for
the subject matter.
3.
Demonstrated
command of the subject matter.
4.
Willingness to
acknowledge your missteps.
5.
Receptive to other's opinions.
6.
Being fair and
transparent.
1.
An engaging personality:
It has
been my experience as both an undergraduate student, graduate student and even
now as tenured full professor that the best professors are often the ones who
go beyond the basics. These are the professors who do not simply resort to
delivering basic lectures in their courses. They are often able to effectively
connect with their students, holding their undivided attention, engaging in a
give-and-take manner with their students, often involving them in the subject
matter.
2.
A passion for the subject matter:
Effective
professors clearly demonstrate a sincere and genuine interest in their subject
matter. It is often evident in their attitude toward the material, an
infectious enthusiasm for whatever they are attempting to convey to their
students. Moreover, they are often able to transmit such passion to others
around them. Great teachers exhibit expertise in the subjects that they are teaching
and are often looking for ways to further enhance their knowledge of the field.
These are the professors that are always incorporating new information or
techniques into their teaching and subject matter. They never allow themselves
to become stagnant. They subscribe to the belief that no course should be
taught the same way forever.
3.
Willingness to acknowledge your missteps:
Good professors also realize that no one is perfect. Even the best
professors are inclined to make a misstep from time to time. When this happens,
rather than being in denial or becoming defensive, the effective professor
acknowledges his or her mistake(s) and makes an effort to rectify them. These
are the professors who are not afraid to go off script, or indeed, rewrite the
script, if need be.
4. Receptive
to other’s opinions:
Every
profession has its share of egotistical people. Given the years of toil, grit
(and sometimes tears along the journey) that it takes to earn a Ph.D., it is
only normal that a person would have or eventually cultivate some degree of
ego. Sometimes this is evident when a professor may become unnerved when a
student challenges their viewpoints. They tend to become defensive, irritated
and out right angry at being challenged. The sad reality is that there are some
professors (I would like to think that they are in the significant minority)
who have trouble accepting positions, arguments and ideas that are at odds with
their own. Nonetheless, effective professors are the ones who are able to
understand and accept the fact that is often more than one way at looking at an
issue. They do not expect all students to embrace their opinion(s) on
everything. In fact, good professors encourage healthy debate in their
classrooms as opposed to shutting down any form of dissent.
5. Being fair and transparent:
The
best professors are fair, open and transparent. They are authorities in the
discipline as well as in the classroom. They refrain from engaging in
bully-like or other humiliating tactics, treat students with decency and
respect and do not play favorites. They often have rigorous, yet reasonable,
standards, and do not live just to see how many low grades or students they can
fail. They give reasonable deadlines for assignments to be completed and are
astute and sensitive to the fact that many students are often enrolled in
several classes at any given academic quarter or semester and that their lives
(students) do not solely revolve around their specific course/courses.
While there other examples and no one
path or size fits all when it comes to excellent teaching, these are just a few
characteristics I would argue are crucial to one being a successful and effective
in the college classroom.Factors of Effective Teaching Gurney, (2007) suggests five key
factors that could contribute to an effective learning and teaching
environment. KEY FACTOR 1:
Teacher Knowledge, Enthusiasm and
Responsibility for Learning: Good classroom is one in
which knowledge is shared among teacher and students. Teacher not only gives
instructions but takes ideas of students during the teaching- learning process
and carry out discussions. In such an environment the knowledge is shared;
students and teachers all become learners and discover the world of the
subject. In such an environment, a
teacher takes responsibility for the sharing and enjoyment of the knowledge.
KEY FACTOR 2:
Classroom Activities That Encourage Learning :
In a classroom of opportunity and experience, the learners explore and
do experiment. In such a climate the
process of learning become a measure of success and the students feel that they
are the masters of their own learning.
Attitudes
of the teacher in such a classroom can influence the outcome. A teacher needs
to be prepared to test what is going on in the class.
The
class activities used to engage the students must be reviewed, revisited and
refocused in order to draw students into an effective interaction with the
subject.
KEY
FACTOR 3
Assessment Activities That Encourage Learning
Through Experience :
The assessment contributes towards the creation of an effective learning
process. If the students know the value
of assessment in the ongoing learning process, not at the end, then they can
work well and take part in the process and use it to gain better results. The effective learning environment involves
the processes of peer tutoring, co-operative learning, questioning, clarifying
and summarising. All of these processes are used to empower the learners. For
example if teacher asks the question: ‘What do you do in the classroom?’ If
assessment activities are part of the ‘doing’ then they become a central part
of the learning process.
KEY
FACTOR 4:
Effective Feedback That Establishes the
Learning Processes:
In the Classroom Appropriate learning related feedback is one of the
important factors in effective teaching.
Different methods of feedback enable the teacher to engage the students
with learning. All explanations, questioning methods, instructions are part of
feedback and student input (Hattie, 1999, p.9).
In an effective classroom the students actively seek the feedback of
their performance. Alton Lee (2003) highlights the value of feedback but warns
that too much can be harmful as too little. The feedback that a teacher gets
from the students is also essential to the creation of a learning environment.
The more feedback that a teacher can obtain from students, and the more the
teacher can act on that feedback, the better the learning environment will be
that is created.
KEY
FACTOR 5:
Effective Interaction between the Teacher and
the Students, Creating an Environment That Respects, Encourages and Stimulates
Learning through Experience
Learning is
an emotional exercise. Students like those things or actions that appeals to
them emotionally. The teacher who brings a sense of personal involvement to the
classroom, and who wants to share the knowledge with the class, who shows that
he/she is also a part of the learning cycle, is setting up a relationship with
the learners. The working environment generated by the interaction can remove
the stigma of ‘working’ and turn the learning process into rewarding.
Question NO:3
What is Gagne’s frame work for instructional development?
Answer:
What is Gagne’s
frame work:
Gagne's model of instructional design is based on
the information processing model of the mental events that occur when
adults are presented with various stimuli and focuses on the learning outcomes
and how to arrange specific instructional events to achieve those outcomes. Stimulating
recall of prerequisite learning.
Gagne’s frame
work for instructional development:
A
famous educational psychologist, Robert Gagne, identified nine instructional
events that support learning and that can be used in lesson planning. These
points are often used as a framework for instructional development by the
teachers. Gagne’s frame work focus on the acquisition of intellectual skills
during instruction.
Gagne's “Events of Instruction” consist of the following:
1.
Gaining attention
2.
Informing the learner of the
objective
3.
Stimulating recall of prerequisite
learning
4.
Presenting the stimulus material
5.
Providing learning guidance
6.
Eliciting the performance
7.
Providing feedback
8.
Assessing the performance
9.
Enhancing retention and transfer
Inserting a peritoneal drain is a motor skill, which
corresponds to affective and psychomotor skill outcomes. The ideal number of
learners for this kind of session is 4 or 5. The following instructional events
can be organised for a lesson to teach insertion of a peritoneal drain:
The nine events of instruction are:
i)
Gaining
attention:-
When students arrive at class, their attention can be
directed toward many other things, so in order for any learning to take place,
first their attention must be captured and their interest should be aroused.
Here are some examples:
1.
An abrupt stimulus change, such as
gesturing or speaking loudly
2.
Starting the lesson with a
thought-provoking question or interesting fact.
3.
Providing an interesting visual or
sound stimulus. Depending on the audience, multimedia (like PowerPoint slides)
can be used to combine photographs, pictures, and sound.
In our session, combining items 2 and 3 is a good
starting point: a case scenario of a patient with ascites can be presented
together with relevant investigations/images, asking the learners about the
case. There is no doubt that curiosity motivates students to learn.
Students attention is gained towards the
lesson. There are many ways to gain
students’ attention; such as teacher links the lesson with the students’
previous knowledge, start from the daily experiences of the students related to
the lesson.
ii)
Informing
learners of the objective:-
State
the objectives of the lesson. Make the students aware of what they are going to
learn. Early in each lesson students should encounter
a list of learning objectives. This initiates the internal process of
expectancy and helps motivate the learner to complete the lesson.
A direct statement can be used in our session: “upon
completing this lesson you will be able to”:
·
Consent the patient for insertion
of a peritoneal drain
·
Identify the correct anatomical
point
·
Identify the equipment required
·
Prepare, position and monitor the
patient
·
Understand and perform the correct
technique for insertion of a peritoneal drain under fully aseptic condition
·
Understand the principles of
securing, dressing and connecting the drain
·
Understand the importance of
appropriate analgesia post procedure
·
Complete the appropriate
documentation in patient's medical notes
iii)
Stimulating
recall of prior learning:-
In order to make link with the previous knowledge, the teacher may asks
questions to recall the prior learning. Associating
new information with prior knowledge and personal experience and getting the
learners to think about what they already know can facilitate the learning
process.
In our session, 20-30 minutes should be allocated for
interactive discussion of the following:
Asking questions about previous observations and
experiences, indications of inserting a peritoneal drain, relevant anatomy,
findings on examination and relevant tests before the procedure to confirm the
diagnosis (e.g. abdominal ultrasound)
iv)
Presenting the content:-
The
teachers present the new concepts. Define and describe the details of the
concepts before the students. v)
Providing learning guidance:- the
teachers use the audio and visual aids in order to create a best learning
environment. This event is where the new content is
actually presented to the learner. Content should be organised meaningfully,
and explained and demonstrated using a variety of media.
In our session, different steps of the procedure should
be explained:
How to consent the patient, monitoring, equipment
needed, positioning the patient, the technique of peritoneal drain insertion
and how to secure the drain. Finally, tests needed after the procedure
(biochemistry, cytology and microbiology tests on the fluid sample), and
appropriate analgesia should be explained.
v)
Providing opportunities to practice:-
The teachers use examples from the daily life and provide opportunities
to revise/drill the new lesson. Sometimes the teachers give class work for the
improvement in learning. This event means showing
what appropriate actions constitute correct performance, plus additional
suggestions, including use of examples, case studies, graphical
representations, and mnemonics to help learners encode information for long-term
storage, or in simple terms, “make the stimulus as meaningful as possible”.
As this is a practical procedure, if learners first
observe the procedure they are in a better position to perform it themselves.
The teacher shows the equipment and performs the procedure on a dummy,
including the sterile technique, explaining it step by step. While performing
the procedure, useful tips and hints can be provided.
vi)
Providing
feedback (information about how to improve):-
The work assignments of the
students are checked by the teacher and comments are given. The students are
asked to correct the work. The action now turns to
learners. In this event, the learner is required to practice the new skill or
behaviour. Eliciting performance provides an opportunity for learners to
confirm their correct understanding, and the repetition further increases the
likelihood of retention.
In our session, each one of the learners should get
familiar with the equipment, demonstrate the sterile technique and perform the
procedure on the dummy under direct supervision.
vii)
Assessing
performance (exam, tests, papers):-
The
evaluation methods are used to check the students’ performance on the learned
concepts. The assessment of students’ progress can be carried out by
daily/monthly tests, examinations, etc. While observing each learner performing the procedure, individual and
immediate feedback and guidance can be provided and any questions can be
answered. In addition, feedback from other learners observing the performance
is very helpful.
viii)
Enhancing retention and transfer:-
At
this point, the students demonstrate what they have learned without receiving
additional coaching or hints. However, a single performance does not ensure
that the new capability has been reliably stored and additional practice is
needed.
In our session, this will constitute demonstration of
the whole procedure by the learner without prompt or guidance. The main issue
here is time and resources. If there is enough time, or if an additional
session is organised, they can practice the procedure a few times and at the
end demonstrate their performance. It is not possible to assess the desired
outcome, insertion of a peritoneal drain on “a real patient” in the same
session but during on-calls and on the wards, the learners get a chance of
performing the procedure. Due to invasive nature of the procedure, they “must”
be supervised and assisted initially and after practicing a few times, they
will be able to perform it independently.
The teacher organize activities to help students remember and
retain the learned concepts. The learned behavior of the student is confirmed
when he/she applies the knowledge on to different situations to solve other
problems (transfer it to other scenarios).
Viii- Enhancing
retention and transfer:
Once we are reasonably sure that the new capabilities are reliably
stored, we can increase the likelihood that they will be retained over a long
time period by providing practice and spaced reviews. The repetition of learned
concepts is an effective mean of enhancing retention, although often disliked
by students. Additionally, transfer of knowledge and skills to new problems and
situations is a goal of most instruction, but classroom time constraint makes
it more difficult to achieve.
To enhance retention, the learners should practice the
procedure on a dummy a few times. More frequent practice broken by rest periods
is more effective. The transfer of knowledge constitutes applying their skills
in a clinical setting, while initially being supervised. The session can be
closed by reviewing the key points, answering the questions and asking for
learners’ feedback.
In designing a session like this, several factors need
to be considered, including the nature of objectives, setting, time, available
resources, institutional constraints, content, number of learners, their
characteristics and their preferences. The most effective way to achieve
psychomotor objectives is to get the learners to perform and practice the
activity after preparing them with some lectures or demonstrations. The session
should cover the 3 areas that are necessary for teaching psychomotor skills: 1)
Before practice: objectives, performance criteria and how it should be
performed by an expert. 2) During practice: critical cues and how to use the
information. 3) After practice: feedback, enhancing retention and transfer.
Question NO:4
How are objectives stated in behavioral terms?
Answer:
what is behavioral terms?
They
are statements that describe the behavior the student (you () is expected to exhibit as a result of
one or more learning experiences. ... A behavioral term is one this
is observable and measurable.
Objectives
stated in behavioral terms:
A behavioral objective is a learning outcome stated
in measurable terms, which gives direction to the learner’s experience and
becomes the basis for student evaluation.
Objectives may vary in several respects. They may be general or
specific, concrete or abstract, cognitive, affective, or psychomotor. Cognitive
objectives emphasize intellectual outcomes, such as knowledge, understanding,
and thinking skills. Affective objectives emphasize feeling and emotion, such
as interests, values, attitudes, appreciation, and methods of adjustment.
Psychomotor objectives emphasize motor skills, such as physical assessment
skills and administration of chemotherapy.
Points in writing behavioral objectives:
- Begin each
behavioral objective with a verb. The critical aspect of any
behavioral objective is the verb selected to indicate expected behavior
from learning activities.
- State each
objective in terms of learner performance. A behavioral objective is one
that is considered to be observable and measurable. Behavior is generally
construed to be an action of an individual that can be seen, felt, or
heard by another person.
- State each objective so that it includes
only one general learning outcome.
Examples of objectives:
At the graduate level of nursing education, it is expected that
learning objectives will be general, abstract,
and cognitive or affective. Examples of appropriate objectives
for graduate students are as follows:
- Cognitive: Create
an assessment tool based on a nursing theory for patients experiencing
pain.
- Cognitive: Evaluate
the usefulness of nursing research in clinical practice.
- Affective: Accept
professional responsibility for change in problem clinical situations.
Learning objectives are known to be made up of a number of
components. The most known components are those identified by an educational
theorist Robert Marger. The major components are audience, condition, standards
and behavior. These components entail:
1. Audience:
Learning
objectives should always specify the audience they are intended to serve.
Usually, the audiences are participants in a given training program. For
example in the phrase “learners will be able,” the learners are the audience.
Although there may be different groups of participants in a training program
such as learners, instructors, supervisors and facilitators, the objective
should describe the exact intended audience. This helps in making the
objectives measurable.
2. Behavior:
Behaviors
are observable actions that are supposed to be accomplished by the end of a
training session or program, and should be demonstrated during the program. To
write a clear learning objective, it is important to carefully choose the most
appropriate word that describes the behavior displayed by the participants in
the program after the training is done. The action verb that forms part of your
objective should be able to fully describe the specific behavior that is
expected from a participant after undergoing a training program.
Examples of action
Verbs that you might use include ‘explain’, ‘identify’, ‘analyze’,
‘list’, ‘code’, and ‘present’ among others. These verbs are the most important
part of any learning objective. This is because they identify what has achieved
by the end of the training program, and presumably what they are ready to
perform moving forward. It is therefore important to avoid general verbs such
as ‘know’ and ‘understand’ as they may not be measurable and thus present a lot
of problems when it comes to assessing the effectiveness of training program.
For instance, it is better to have an objective that says, “Learners will be
able to list important markets for electronic products,” rather than “learners
will know the important markets for electronic products.”
3. Standard:
Learning
objectives should identify to what standards a given skill or knowledge must be
achieved by the learner. In other words, the standards used in objectives give
the proficiency to which the training will elicit in the learners. It is,
therefore, important for you to give the specifics of how a learner will be
able to perform a given task in terms of quality and quantity after undergoing
a given training program. For example in the objective, “…the learners should
be able to identify 95% of errors…” the phrase ‘95% of errors’ is the standard.
4. Condition:
A
condition in an objective specifies the conditions under which given tasks
should be performed. These are the actual conditions a given task should take
place. The conditions may include time and place. An example of a condition in
an objective is “after this program the learners should be able to take less
than five minutes in successfully predicting the performance of a given stock,”
here the phrase “less than five minutes” represents the condition.
Question
NO:5
What are the different factors that influence student motivation
Answer:
Factors
influence the development of student
motivation:
Scientific researchers are of great importance in terms of the
development of science, it is necessary to study these researches carefully and
pursue them continuously in order to be aware of the developments in the
future.
Odom et al. (2005)
indicate that assessing the results of previous research and the scientific
research process will contribute greatly to scientific progress by examining
the contextual development of academic work written in the relevant field. It
is a generally accepted fact that education system has a great effect on the
continuous development and improvement of a society and the educational
research has really significant impact on the development of the education
system (Çepni and Küçük, 2002). Giving the necessary support to scientific
research provides benefits to the level of development of the country
positively and gives direction to the policy that needs to be planned for the
future (Turan, Karadağ, Bektaş and Yalçın, 2014). In the literature, motivation
is identified as a force that stimulates, directs and sustains behavior
(Brophy, 1998, Glynn and Koballa, 2006; Palmer, 2005). On the other hand,
student motivation or learning motivation is defined as "the tendency of a
student to find meaningful and useful academic activities and to try to obtain
academic benefits from them” (Brophy, 1998, p. 205). According to Cavas (2011),
motivation is a fundamental education variable as it helps previously learned
skills, strategies and behaviors to promote new learning and performance.
Without
motivation, proper curriculum and good instruction are not enough to guarantee
the success of students (Dornyei and Csizer, 1998). There are factors affecting
student motivation and student achievement considerably on the basis of
establishing effective and efficient learning-teaching process in education
systems. The studies show many motivational factors (psychological, social and
cultural): Intrinsic and extrinsic directions, parental influence and participation,
family history, peer pressure, self-efficacy expectations, effort, value
attributed to a relative, anxiety, self-regulation and determination of goals,
talent perceptions, learning strategies, teaching style and school environment
(Brophy, 1998, Garcia, 1995, Nolen and Haladyna, 1989, Pintrich and Schunk,
1996, Singh, Granville and Dika, 2002). For example, it is stated that the
school environment optimizes motivation and learning when it is accessible,
secure, positive, personalized and empowering. Teachers here, of course, play a
very important role because they are an integral part of the school
environment. Researches indicates that teachers' knowledge and skills,
motivation level, qualifications, forms of evaluation, teaching style, quality
of enthusiasm and enthusiasm can contribute to the motivation of the learners.
The more enthusiastic, motivated and qualified teachers are in teaching and
evaluating, the greater the capacity to increase learners' motivation to learn
(Williams and Williams, 2011). Furthermore, lack of participation in the
parents' education of the students may have a negative impact on the sense of
incompleteness and lack of value for the materials the children read because
studies indicate that there is significant relationship between parent
involvement and children's academic motivation and educational development
(Gottfried, Fleming, and Gottfried, 1994). Motivation is a critical component
of learning and plays a very important role in helping students become involved
in academic activities. Motivation is defined as a situation that gives energy
to behavior, directs and sustains it. This includes goals and activity
requiring that the objectives provide motivation to move and action. Action
requires effort and insistence to operate for a long period of time. Motivation
involves a set of beliefs, perceptions, values, information and actions that
are totally related to each other. Motivation can lead to many behaviors and it
is important to understand the importance of motivation in an educational
setting .
According to JereBrophy (1987), motivation to
learn is a competence acquired “through general experience but stimulated most
directly through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction
or socialization by significant others (especially parents and teachers)”.
Explain:
Children’s home environment
shapes the initial constellation of attitudes they develop toward learning.
When parents nurture their children’s natural curiosity about the world by
welcoming their questions, encouraging exploration, and familiarizing them with
resources that can enlarge their world, they are giving their children the
message that learning is worthwhile and frequently fun and satisfying.
For Example:
When
children are raised in a home that nurtures a sense of self-worth, competence,
autonomy, and self-efficacy, they will be more apt to accept the risks inherent
in learning. Conversely, when children do not view themselves as basically
competent and able, their freedom to engage in academically challenging
pursuits and capacity to tolerate and cope with failure are greatly
diminished.
Children:
Once children start school, they are being
forming beliefs about their school-related successes and failures. The sources
to which children attribute their successes (commonly effort, ability, luck, or
level of task difficulty) and failures (often lack of ability or lack of
effort) have important implications for how they approach and cope with
learning situations.
The
beliefs teachers themselves have about teaching and learning and the nature of
the expectations they hold for students also exert a powerful influence
(Raffini). As Deborah Stipek (1998)
notes, “To a very large degree, students expect to learn if their teachers
expect them to learn”.
School:
School’s wide goals, policies,
and procedures also interact with classroom climate and practices to affirm or
alter students’ increasingly complex learning-related attitudes and
beliefs.
Developmental
changes comprise one more strand of the motivational web. For example, although
young children tend to maintain high expectations for success even in the face
of repeated failure, older students do not. And although younger children tend
to see effort as uniformly positive, older children view it as a “double- edged
sword” (Ames). To them, failure following high effort appears to carry more
negative implication—especially for their self-concept of ability--than failure
that results from minimal or no effort.
How to help motivating learners According to Carol Ames (1990, 1992),
there are six areas that can influence students’ motivation to learn:
Task
students are asked to do. The strength of our motivation in a particular
situation is determined by our expectation that we can get success and the
value of that success. To understand how an academic task can affect student’s
motivation, we need to analyze them. Tasks can be interesting or boring for
students. And tasks have different value for students. The autonomy students are allowed in working.
Give students a range of options that set valuable tasks for them, but also
allow them to follow personal interest. The balance must be just right. Too
much autonomy is bewildering and too little is boring. How students are recognized for their
accomplishments.
Students should be recognized for improving on
their own personal best, for tackling difficult tasks, for persistence, and for
creativity.
Grouping Practices.
Motivation
can greatly influenced by the ways we relate to the other people who are also
involved in accomplishing a particular goal. When the task involves complex
learning and problem skills, cooperation leads to higher achievement than
competition, especially for students with low abilities. The interaction with
peers that the students enjoy so much becomes a part of learning process. The
need for belonging described by Maslow is more likely to be met and motivation
is increased.
Evaluation Procedures.
The greater
the emphasis on competitive evaluation and grading, the more students will
focus on performance goals rather than mastery. Low-achieving students who have
little hope of either performing well or mastery the task may simply want to
get it over with. How can teachers prevent students from simply focusing on the
grade or doing the work “just to get finished”? The answer is to de-emphasize
grades and emphasize learning in the class. Students need to understand the
value of the work or how the information will be useful in solving problems
they want to solve. One way to emphasize learning rather than grades is to use
self-evaluation. Scheduling of time in
the classroom. Most teachers know that there is too much work and not enough
time in the school day. Even if they become engrossed in a project, students
must stop and turn their attention to another subject when the bell rings or
the schedules demands. Furthermore, students must progress as a group. So,
scheduling often interferes with motivation by making students move faster or
slower and interrupting their involvement. Therefore, teacher should be able to
give extended period when everyone, even the teachers engage in activity or to
have
some sort of block scheduling in which teachers work in teams to plan larger
blocks of time. Strategize with
Struggling Students When students are struggling with poor academic
performance, low self-efficiency or low motivation, one strategy that may help
is to teach them how to learn. That is, to outline specific strategies for
completing an assignment, note-taking or reviewing for an exam. Examples of learning strategies
Specific
Learning Strategies:
• Pre-action
phase (preparing for task)
Take a reasonable risk, work toward goals that are challenging but
attainable, work in manageable, bite-size pieces, take responsibility for your
actions, believe In your own effort and
capability, set a plan and work from it.
• Action
phase-
In amphibious operations, the period
of time between the arrival of the landing forces of the amphibious force in
the operational area and the accomplishment of their mission. search the
environment, ask questions, visualize it (?)
• Reaction phase
A chemical or physical change which involves the transfer of
material between phases, or the appearance or disappearance of a phase (after one
task, preparing for the next one) - use feedback from prior tasks; monitor your
own actions, giving yourself instructions.
8 Factors that Affect Students’ Motivation in Education
1. Class
and Curriculum Structure:
Children thrive when there is structure and struggle when there is
chaos. When students sense or see that classes follow a structure, and the
curriculum and class materials have been prepared beforehand, it provides them
with a greater sense of security.
The feeling of security is one of our basic needs. When
that’s provided in a learning environment, it allows students to fully focus on
the learning material.To help students feel more secure, educators need to plan
classes and curriculums. All materials that will be used in class should be
prepared in advance. Educators can also state the objectives of a course or
class at the beginning of a semester or a class.
2. Teacher
Behavior and Personality:
If a
student has a negative emotion such as fear or disliking towards their teacher,
that can negatively affect their attitude toward the subject as a whole. If a
teacher shows a preference towards certain students or uses derogatory and
humiliating language, that can lower their motivation in education.
On the other hand, kindness, optimism, positive feedback,
and encouragement can positively affect students’ motivation to learn.
3. Teaching
Methods:
Students are more likely to
retain their motivation in education if educators use different teaching
methods. That creates diversity and prevents students from getting bored.
Giving room for certain choices such as which partner they’d like to work with
can be beneficial too.
Students in a single class are likely to have different
styles of learning. Thus, a teacher is more likely to meet these needs by
applying different teaching methods.Another important aspect, especially when
it comes to girls in STEM
subjects, is ensuring that the knowledge or skills
learned can be practically applied in real life.
In some cases, enrolment in extracurricular activities or support from a tutor can help address students’
needs that are not met at school.
4. Parental
Habits and Involvement:
Quite a few parental habits can indirectly affect the
motivation of children, intrinsic motivation in particular. These include:
- showing interest in the child’s learning
material,
- inquiring about their day,
- actively listening,
- helping with specific tasks or skills
taught at school,
- attending parent meetings,
- Encouraging children to complete homework
or study for a test.
Another habit that’s been proven to improve motivation,
is reading. Reading to and with small children helps they develop literacy
faster than talking does. However, reading
comprehension level can determine
students’ success in later school years.
5. Family Issues and Instability:
Same as the lack of security in
the classroom, the lack of security at home can negatively impact motivation in
education.
Children who live with both
parents, on average get better grades than children who don’t. Family conflicts
and disruption can result in poorer academic performance. Some examples include:
- divorce,
- loss of one or both parents,
- not living with the biological father or
mother,
- not having contact with the biological
father or mother,
- frequently moving from one home to
another,
- Being or having been involved with Child
Protective Services.
As a result, in certain instances,
additional support may be needed from schools to help students with their
issues.
6. Peer Relationships:
As children
grow older, the influence peers have upon them increases as well. Therefore,
problems and conflicts with peers can make students feel less secure about
their social status among peers, increase their stress levels, and lower
motivation in education.
Keeping an eye on any conflicts,
bullying, and other peer issues can prevent serious problems.
7. Learning Environment:
School
environment or school climate is another factor that affects motivation in
education. School environment refers to different norms and regulations that
determine the overall climate in the school.
Positive school environment makes
students feel safe and secure, meets their basic needs such as daily meals, and
provides an optimal environment for them to build healthy social relationships.
Too many classes and learning
environment that’s too serious can also lower motivation in education. Adding a
fun element to classes can help to ease the atmosphere and improve motivation
and results. Allowing enough time for play and rest can also have a positive effect.
8. Assessment:
While standardized
assessment increases the standards of attainment, it can negatively influence students’ motivation in education, especially at a
younger age. The opposite can be seen in countries like Finland where
primary school children do not get any tests. Despite the lack of assessment,
Finnish children display higher academic achievements.
It is also common for students to
lose motivation if tests are continuously too challenging. This does not
provide a sense of achievement and lowers motivation in education over time.
Thus, it’s important for educators to experiment with and apply different testing
methods which would be able to address the different learning needs of
students.
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