ASSIGNMENT
EDUCATION LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT: (8605)
WRITTEN BY: MADIHA AFZAL
PROGRAMME: B.ED (1.5)
SEMESTER: FISRT
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
Question
No:1
Elaborate
the spirit of Islamic administration and educational administration.
1.
Meaning and Spirit of Islamic
Administration
The Holy Quran is the real basis of Islamic life and its actual regulation
is very limited. Muslims are free to establish as needs rise, in the spirit of
social justice. The few laws in the Holy Quran are often tolerant and give
large opportunities to suit any change in surroundings. Qamarudin Khan,
Professor of Islamic History, Karachi University, is of the opinion that “the
Holy Quran does not aim to create a state but to create a society”. So whatsoever
clearly stated laws given by Allah (SW.T) and His messenger about life and
society. No one is allowed to depart from them even by a hair’s breath. Profession
the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) the ideal philosopher – king, who surpasses in
both theory and practice the qualities which Plato sought in his ideal, are
found from a famous Hadith of the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) as the founder and
theoretician of administration of Islamic state had a unique position as its
executive head. In fact he was a legislator (through divine revelation as well
his personal pronouncements and practice all of which acquired a sacred
character for the Muslims), executive as well as a jurist.
He was not answerable to any one as for as the
revealed commands were concerned. But, in the absence of divine revelations, it
was his wont to consult his companions. In fact he was command by Allah (S.W.T)
to do so. The Holy Quran commands the Prophet “And consult them (i.e. those
around you) in (important) matters.
So the two essential and primary ingredients of the Islamic
administration theory are the Ummah and the Shari’ah. These concepts are
clearly elaborated in the Holy Quran. Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) was himself the
focal point of these two concepts. Therefore, with the death of the Prophet,
the Prophecy came to an end. Thus there was created a gap between the Shariah
and the Ummah. The new link was created by the Ijma of the community in the
form of the institution of the Khilafah which constitutes the third element of
Islamic political theory. The fourth element would be the concept of Dar
al-Islam and the Mumin living therein.
The question arises that Islam favours the
theocracy or democracy administrative setup. Mulana Maududi says, the Islamic
theocracy does not mean a rule by any priestly class but it means common
Muslims wielding reigns of power. But the Muslims have to wield this power in
keeping with the Book of Allah (S.W.T) and Sunnah, of His Prophet.
2.
Educational Administration Meaning and
Nature
Administration is a machinery through which any organization or
institution can be managed. It is a mean set up for a smooth and efficient
working of educational structure. Educational administration is the direction,
control and management of all matters pertaining to school affairs. direction
is the leadership within the community and the school system. Control and
management are the means for realization of purposes defined in educational
planning. Education is in the control of the state as certain controls are at
the state level in the form of constitutional provisions, enactments and also
as executive activities. Management designates a broad function, which the
responsibilities related to the school, pupils, teachers and other affairs
related to the school.
Russel T. Gregg defines, “Educational
administration is the process of utilizing appropriate materials in such a way
as to promote effectively the development of human qualities. It is concerned
not only with the development of children and youth but also with the growth of
adults and particularly with the growth of school personnel.
A good administration is one, which exhibits
human activity at its best. The ingredients of good administration are:
1.. Associated performance-Human beings
work in close collaboration and there is sharing of responsibilities.
2. Organized purpose-well-defined
purposes are achieved through sharing of responsibilities.
3. Creativity-through dynamic approach.
The group proceeds towards its goal.
4. Achievement – the feeling of
achievement makes an administrator to take more efforts to achieve perfection.
Administration also involves different kinds of activities to achieve its
purpose and to perform the functions related to it.
a) Importance of Educational
Administration
The purpose of
educational administration is to enable an organization or an institution to
carry out its functions with maximum efficiency. It also enables the right
pupils to receive the right education and from the right teachers at a cost
which should be within the means of state, and which will enable the pupils to
profit from their learning. The basic purpose is to bring students and teachers
together under such conditions which will successfully promote the end of the
education.
The
major purposes are:
i) To frame well-defined policies and
programmes so that teaching, learning situation results in the growth and
development of human beings.
ii) To make use of appropriate materials to
bring about the effective development of human qualities.
iii) To execute the programmes and activities
of the organization so that its objectives may be achieved.
iv) To assure the growth of children and adults
and all the people involved in the management.
The other important purposes are:
1.
Achievement
of Goals:
Educational Administration is not a goal in
itself rather it is the means to achieve goals. It must serve the aims of
education. If education is a tool for social transformation, it must inculcate
and generate a sense of identification and a sense of one’s fellow beings.
Educational Administration is concerned with human and material resources. The
human elements are pupils, parents, teachers and other employees in general at
different levels. On the material side, there are money buildings, equipments
and instructional supplies. Beyond these two elements are ideas, curricula,
courses of study, methods, principles, laws and regulations, community needs,
and so on. The integration of these parts as a whole is a challenge for the
Administrator; rather these should be effectively used to achieve the goals of
education.
2.
Economy :
The
administrative setup should check that human material resource should be
economically used to achieve maximum benefits. Wastage of any, resource should
be avoided. Education in the developing countries is consistently administered
poorly. It involves extraordinarily high monetary cost and lacks in planning
and coordination. For the most efficient mobilization of a country resource, it
is very important that the plans for the development of economy and for
developing human resources should be coordinated.
3.
Conservation
of Resources :
From the standpoint of economic development three factors are of basic
importance i.e. natural resources, physical capital and human resources.
Natural resources are not only determining factor in economic development.
Investment is directly related to economic development but varies greatly in
its effectiveness. The problem is not only to bring about an increase in the
share of natural produce, but also to bring about a more desirable allocation
of investment. To make full use of capital investment, a qualified managerial,
engineering and labour force is essential for selection, operation and
maintenance of such investments. Therefore, to bring about development using
education, it is desirable to conserve the three types of resources.
4.
Optimum
use of Resources :
These resources should be used in such a way
that one should get the maximum benefit out of them for good and efficient
administration.
b) Scope of
Educational Administration:
Fayol
considered administration as a way to plan, to organize, to command, to
coordinate and to control education.
Planning is an intellectual activity, which is performed on the basis of
facts and principles. It plans its activities in such a way that the objectives
for which it has come into existence can be achieved. To organize the means of arrangements, by
which interrelationship along with order for people, materials, procedure,
knowledge and the work can be done.
Command or to direction involves the execution
of plans and decisions and makes the staff do their work. Coordination requires harmonizing in a
unified manner all the elements involved in the programme. It seeks the
cooperation of all who are involved in the administration.
The establishment of the
formal structure of authority through which work subdivisions are arranged,
defined and coordinated for defined objectives.
1)
Organizing:
The establishment of the formal structure of
authority through which work subdivisions are arranged, defined and coordinated
for defined objectives.
2)
Staffing:
The personnel function of brining in and
training the staff and maintaining favourable conditions for work.
3)
Directing:
It is a continuous task of
making decisions and also deciding on specific and general orders and
instructions and serving as the teacher of enterprise.
4)
Coordinating:
It is the important aspect of inter-relating the various parts of the work.
Question
NO:2
Explain the different theories of management.
In your opinion which theory is better and why? Discuss.
Answer
What are
management theories?
Benefits
of management theories
There are several reasons why leaders should
study and apply management theories include:
Simplified decision-making:
Management
theories give leaders strategies that speed up the decision-making process,
helping those leaders be more effective in their roles.
Increased collaboration:
Leaders learn how to encourage team member
participation and increase collaboration in the workplace.
Increased objectivity:
Management theories encourage leaders to make
scientifically proven changes rather than relying on their judgment.
Here are seven important management theories to
be aware of:
1. Scientific
management theory
2. Principles
of administrative management theory
3. Bureaucratic
management theory
4. Human
relations theory
5. Systems
management theory
6. Contingency
management theory
7. Theory X
and Y
1. Scientific
management theory:
Developed by Frederick Taylor,
he was one of the first to study work performance scientifically. Taylor’s
principles recommended that the scientific method should be used to perform
tasks in the workplace, as opposed to the leader relying on their judgment or
the personal discretion of team members. Developed by
Frederick Taylor, he was one of the first to study work
performance scientifically. Taylor’s principles recommended that the scientific
method should be used to perform tasks in the workplace, as opposed to the
leader relying on their judgment or the personal discretion of team members. While
his focus on achieving maximum workplace efficiency by finding the optimal way
to complete a task was useful, it ignored the humanity of the individual. This
theory is not practiced much today in its purest form, but it demonstrated to
leaders the importance of workplace efficiency, the value of making sure team
members received ample training and the need for teamwork and cooperation
between supervisors and employees.
2.
Principles
of administrative management theory:
Henri
Fayol, a senior executive and mining engineer, developed this theory when he
examined an organization through the perspective of the managers and situations
they might encounter. He believed that leaders had six main functions, to
forecast, plan, coordinate, command and control, and he developed principles
that outlined how leaders should organize and interact with their teams. He
suggested that the principles should not be rigid but that it should be left up
to the manager to determine how they use them to manage efficiently and
effectively. The principles he outlined are:
a.
Initiative: This refers to the level of freedom employees should have to
carry out their responsibilities without being forced or ordered.
b.
Equity: This principle implies everyone in the organization should be
treated equally and that it should be an environment of kindness.
c.
Scalar chain: This principle says there should be a chain of supervisors from
the top level of management to the lower level and that communication generally
flows from top to bottom. He emphasized that there is no hard rule regarding
the communication process through the chain of command.
d.
Remuneration of personnel: This principle refers to the assertion that there should be both
monetary and non-monetary remuneration based on performance levels to
create a bond between the employee and the organization.
e.
Unity of direction: This principle asserts that there should be only one manager per
department who is in charge of coordinating the group activity to attain a
single goal.
f.
Discipline: According to this principle, employees should be respectful and
obedient, and an organization should outline rules and regulations that clarify
rules, good supervision and a reward-punishment system.
3.
Bureaucratic management theory:
Developed
by Max Weber, bureaucratic management theory focuses on structuring
organizations in a hierarchy so there are clear rules of governance. His
principles for creating this system include a chain of command, clear division
of labor, separation of personal and organizational assets of the owner, strict
and consistent rules and regulations meticulous recordkeeping and documentation
and the selection and promotion of employees based on their performance and
qualifications. This theory has played a key role in establishing standards and
procedures that are at the core of most organizations today.
4.
Human relations theory:
This theory was developed by Elton Mayo, who conducted experiments
designed to improve productivity that laid the foundation for the human
relations movement. His focus was on changing working conditions like lighting,
break times and the length of the workday. Every change he tested was met with
an improvement in performance. Ultimately, he concluded that the the
improvements weren’t due to the changes but the result of the researchers
paying attention to the employees and making them feel valued. These experiments
gave rise to the theory that employees are more motivated by personal attention
and being part of a group than they are by money or even working conditions.
5.
Systems management theory:
This
theory asserts that businesses consist of multiple components that must work in
harmony for the larger system to function optimally. The organization’s
success, therefore, depends on synergy, interdependence and interrelations
between subsystems. According to this theory, employees are the most important
components of a company, and departments workgroups and business units are all
additional crucial elements for success. According to this theory,
managers should evaluate patterns and events within the organization to
determine the best management approach. They need to collaborate and work
together on programs to ensure success.
6. Contingency management theory:
Developed by Fred Fiedler, this theory’s primary focus is that no one
management approach works for every organization. Fiedler suggested that a
leader’s traits were directly related to how effectively they lead their team.
He asserts that there areleadership traits that apply to every kind of
situation and that a leader must be flexible to adapt to a changing
environment.
6.
Theory X and Y:
American social
psychologist, Douglas McGregor, introduced X and Y theories in his book, “The
Human Side of Enterprise,” where he concluded that two different styles of
management are guided by their perceptions of team member motivations. Managers
who assume employees are apathetic or dislike their work use theory X, which is
authoritarian. Theory Y is used by managers who believe employees are responsible,
committed and self-motivated. This is a participative management style that
gives rise to a more collaborative work environment, whereas theory X leads to
micromanaging. He concluded that large organizations may rely on theory X to
keep everyone focused on meeting organizational goals. Smaller businesses,
where employees are part of the decision-making process and where creativity is
encouraged, tend to use theory Y.
Question No.3
Explain the purpose and qualities of effective
supervision and highlight the different between administration and supervision.
Answer:
The
purpose and qualities of effective supervision:
Purpose
and Need of Supervision
Different
educationalists have put forward
different views regarding the purpose of supervision. These may be be broadly
summarized as following:
i.
To set up suitable
goals for the educational institutions.
ii.
To provide professional leadership to the
institutions in order to improve their working.
iii.
To enlarge the teacher's concept of the
meaning of education.
iv.
To induce the newly
appointed teachers into the school and into the profession.
v.
To develop an understanding of the place of
education in our civilization and of the special functions of education.
vi.
To bring about a realization of local needs
and conditions.
vii.
To help teachers to analyse critically their
own activities.
viii.
To ascertain the work in which each teacher is
most successful and in which he is capable for growth.
ix.
To unify teachers into a team, all working
intelligently and willing to appreciate cooperation achieve the same general
goals.
x.
To ascertain and bring about needed changes in
the organization and administration that will facilitate an effective teaching.
xi.
To assist teachers in diagnosing pupils needs
and to help in planning for growth and power and satisfy them.
xii.
To popularize the
school programme, especially its success so that the public will be more
understanding and sympathetically helpful.
xiii.
To direct teachers towards unfamiliar sources
of immediate aid and materials for continuing growth.
xiv.
To share the public problems of the school so
as to get suggestions for their rectification.
xv.
To protect teachers
from unnecessary and unreasonable demands by the public on their time and
energies, and to protect them from uncalled for criticisms.
xvi.
To develop a professional awareness and
concern for the profession
Qualities
of an Effective Supervisor
Various attempts have been made by researchers to prepare the lists of
professional qualities of a supervisors and administrators. It is expected by
the supervisor to possess all conceivable attributes. it is hard to find or
produce a supervisor possessing all the qualities and virtues and yet be a
human being.
Before discussing
some of the personal qualities that a supervisor for primary education must
have, it should be stressed that these qualities are not the product of
seniority or teaching experience in a school but these have to be consciously
cultivated. Furthermore, these qualities are not fixed but can be reinforced or
modified by study and practice.
According to
swearingen essential personal qualities of a supervisor, "which can be
nurtured intentionally." Are under:
a) Approachability As supervisor who is accessible to teachers
is a friendly person. But he must be able to move naturally and freely from
informal talk to a deeper level of conservation. He should encourage and welcome
new ideas and try them in actual situations. He must also be good listener and
find time to discuss with teachers what they want to discuss individually or in
groups.
b) Perceptiveness
A high level of awareness enables q supervisor to notice significant
elements in a situation, in materials and in the behaviour of others, and even
in his own action. Without awareness of what is and what ought to be, the
supervisor will be unable to help teachers work productively.
Perceptiveness also implies sensitivity to
other people, their needs and purposes, given them respect and finding
something worth in their work. It also enables the supervisor to anticipate
responses and to have foresight of how events and action may look to others.
Finally, it helps the supervisor to identify maladjusted teachers and their
needs for assistance.
c) Aspiration and Faith “Aspiration, vision and faith should
characterize instructional leaders.” The supervisor should be articulate about
his aspiration and faith. Unless the supervisor keeps himself abreast of new
knowledge and developments and believes in what he professes, he can neither
inspire other nor face the unexpected challenges.
d) Becomingness The Concept of continued growth is germane to
supervision. Teachers, supervisor, Headmasters and educational administrators
are all in the process of growing, or, what Gordon All port calls, “becoming,”
constantly striving to become better. The supervisor must be a growing individual,
always making keen and enthusiastic efforts to keep himself abreast of new
knowledge, new techniques and new trends in education.
e) Imagination and
Resourcefulness It is important that the
supervisor be imaginative and resourceful. Efforts to improve instructions and
human relations often fail for want of imagination and resourcefulness..
"Persistence resilience and willingness to try with good cheer another way
when a first way is blocked should be part of the standard equipment for
supervision."
The possession of these qualities, though
essential, is not itself enough. The supervisor must, in addition, acquire
skills and knowledge appropriate to his task.
Difference
between Administration and Supervision :
Adams
and Dickey (p.4) have rightly said that, to separate supervision and
administration on the basis of function
alone is a virtual impossibility. Some overlapping of supervisory and
administrative functions is inevitable. As we know, supervisory service is
particularly concerned with instruction and its improvement. It is directly
concerned with teaching and training and with the factors included in and
related to these process-the teachers, the pupil, the curriculum, the
instructional materials, etc. On the other hand, administration is aimed at the
same goals as supervision but not directly, Budget-making, construction of
building, personal administration, and so on are all intended to improve the
educational programmes. Though all these activities result in more effective
learning of the pupil, it cannot be achieved immediately. In other words,
administrative functions are concerned with material facilities, whereas
supervisory services are concerned with improving of the learning or academic
situation.
Modern supervision has its essential functions
of promoting and guiding teaching learning situations. The dynamics of
supervision should be consistent with good teaching process, i.e., growth and
development of the learner. On the whole, supervisory services essentially and
basically are aimed at promoting and, facilitating improvement of instruction,
which is the goal of school programme.
Question No:4
Differentiate
the process of plan formation and project planning. And give suggestion for
improving the planning process.
Answer:
The
Process of Plan Formation:
Broad
Objectives and Targets Setting: The initial step in plan formulation is that of
determining broad objectives and targets. The socio-economic objectives, thus,
determined, indicate the direction in which the economy is planned to move. The
various objectives which a plan normally claims to achieve include: increase in
per capita income, high level of employment, increase in national income, price
stability, rapid industrialization, removal of inequalities, equilibrium in the
balance of payments, removal of regional disparities, diversification of the
economy, and the provision of social services (or basic needs) such as health,
education, housing water and sanitation.
The setting of broad goals and objectives/targets
and the review of current economic conditions help in identifying the strategy
to be adopted to ensure the successful implementation of a plan. Thus, the
strategy refers to the specific method or methods to achieve the plan
Thus in such economic
system, the instruments of planning are:
a. Direct
Public Expenditure:
This refers to the
expenditure incurred by the Government for development of various sectors of
the economy through Annual Development Programmes.
b)
Direction of Resources:
The government determines the direction of
resources in private sector through various policies and regulations in order
to ensure the channeling of such resources in the direction indicated in a
plan.
c) Sources of Financing:\
The resources to finance a plan are of two
kinds. First, there are internal resources which, are generated within a
country through taxes, duties, savings, borrowing etc. Secondly, there are
external resources which are obtained from outside the country in the shape of
loans, grants, foreign assistance and foreign private investment.
Process of Project Planning:
One of the
basic objectives of development planning is to make prudent use of available
scarce resources to raise the standard of living of the common man. And to
obtain this objective it is essential that projects are prepared meticulously.
This avoids the wastage of resources and helps scheduled implementation of
projects. Thus, extreme care has to be taken at the stage of project
formulation so that the viability of a project from different angles
(financial, economic, social, technical commercial, managerial etc.) may be
determined. The project formulator should, therefore, ensure that the project
prepared by him;
i)
is the best
alternative to tackle a certain problem in the presence of a number of
constraints;
ii)
involves least use of resources;
iii)
is
sound from financial, economic, technical, commercial and managerial view
points; and iv) has certain flexibility to adjust to any change which may take
place during its implementation phase.
In the paragraphs to
follow, different essential features of a project (which should be taken care
of while preparing a project) have been thoroughly discussed.
i)
Introduction:
In the first instance, a project may contain a brief introductory
note/write-up indicating its scope, importance and the weightage of the
Education sector in the development plan being followed currently. There might
be some identical projects having been implemented previously. Problems faced
in such projects should be highlighted and possible solutions may be
suggested.
ii)
Background:
A brief reference to
plans and policies of the government in respect of the Education sector may be
made. The idea here is to see as to how far the project is going to be an
effective instrument to achieve the sectoral objectives and targets. There may
be a situation when a pilot project is initiated before implementation of the
actual project. Such details need to be given.
iii)
The
Project Area:
The area where project is to
operate may be explored fully so as to establish its suitability. For this
purpose, different surveys may be undertaken to collect technical and other
data whenever necessary. Following aspects of the project area may also be
looked into:-
a) Physical
Resources: This is very important from the land
utilization point of view. A study may be required to examine the topography of
the area, capability of the soil (for instance for agricultural
production/irrigation projects), water availability etc.
b) Population
and employment: The study of population in the project
area is to identify the beneficiaries of the project. Such a study may involve
analysis of the size and age structure of the population, density, its
urban-rural distribution, migration trends etc.
c) Physical Infrastructure: Depending upon the nature of the project, the
prevalent position with regard to the means of transport and communication will
have a direct bearing on the operation of the project. Hence, the need for
proper study of the physical infrastructure at the stage of project formulation
is required.
d) Institutions: Presence of the supporting institutions will
facilitate smooth functioning of the project. The examination of such
institutions is therefore, a very crucial area of probe before the project is
proposed to be located at a particular place.
iv) Objective and Phasing of the Project:
Objectives of the project may
be spelt out in specific terms. Similarly, the physical work involved may be
clearly indicated with reference to its phasing and time period. This will help
identify various project activities and their completion in a more logical
sequence.
iv)
Choice
of Location, Production Process and Size:
At the stage or project formulation, factors
such as location, production process, size etc. need to be studied in depth in
accordance with the nature of the project. Howsoever sound a project may be, if
it is not properly located, it will fail to give full result. Therefore, choice
of a proper location for the project is of primary importance.
The choice of production process will mostly
be governed by technical considerations. However, natural conditions and supply
of factors of production will also make a lot of difference. Determination of
the size of the project will be governed mainly by the volume of future demand
for the produce of the project, the geographical extent of the market which in
turn will depend on the taste and habits of the consumers.
v)
Project’s
Major Works and other Components:
In order to give physical shape to a project,
major works and essential components have to be
indicated with
maximum accuracy. These works and activities may be classified as under:- a) Major
Works: Based on
preliminary surveys and investigations (normally in case of big projects) all
major works should be described in full.
b) Ancillary Works and Buildings: For some of the projects, staffhouses and drinking
water supply tanks may have to be constructed, simultaneously. These works when
connected with some major projects are known as ancillary works.
c) Equipment: Some equipment may also be required during the
construction and operation of the project such as machinery, vehicles and other
maintenance equipment which should be identified in advance for smooth running
of the project.
vi)
Phasing
of Works and Activities:
A project may be spread
over any length of time. For this reason, project-works are split up into
different phases. Generally, projects are phased out on fiscal year basis.
Nevertheless, in case of big projects which involve certain loans, proper
scheduling and phasing of various activities included in the project assumes
greater significance for the purpose of repayment of loans. In order to
facilitate smooth and timely implementation of projects, it is necessary to
visualize problems which are likely to crop up during the execution phase. This
would bring in more realism in the project at the very stage of its
formulation.
Question
NO:5
Discuss
the psychological factors that affect the class environment.
Answer:
Psychological Factors of Classification:
Basis of Classification:
The simplest
and the crudest basis of classification is the age of children. In countries
where elementary education is compulsory and children join the school at a
certain prescribed age, instruction is graded on age basis and each class has
generally children of the same age. Pupils being promoted from year to year,
age is generally an index of a pupils educational standing.
Chronological Age:
But age by itself is a very unreliable basis of classification. A boy of twelve year, for instance, might the duller than a child of six and among children of the same age. Psychological investigations have disclosed, there are as great variations in educability and ability as between a normal boy of fifteen and one of five. Of late, psychologists, teachers and administrators have all concentrated their attack upon age as the simple criterion of the ability of pupils to cope with each level of work; and they have condemned the mass movement of pupils from class to class at the end of the year, called the lock-step promotion Chronological age is certainly considered, but only as a starting point for an investigation as to be mental and educational standing of a pupil, before he is put into any particular class. By itself, age school-work or can do in future.
Often we come across
pupils who are older than their class-fellows but have a less ability in school
subjects than their age would warrant. Statistical investigations in USA as to
be actual distribution of pupils by ages among the elementary and high-school
classes have shown a very wide range; in one class (sixth grade), for instance,
in a single State the chronological age varied from 9 years to 17 years, the
average being 11-12 years. Similar investigations in Pakistan will show perhaps
a wider range of distribution. These wide differences in the ages of pupils in
the same class have existed ever since the beginning of school systems. But,
before what is called the Scientific Movement in Education’s started about a
generation age there was little awareness of their educational implications,
until attention was focused upon the problem of retardation in school by
Leonard P. Ayres’ famous study Luggd in our Schools.
Retarded Children:
It is a
notorious face that a very large percentage of pupils are retarded in their
educational progress, having usually stagnated in a class for two or three
years. The longer a child remains in a class, the less is the hope of his
future progress. Stagnation occurs to much larger extent in rural areas than in
urban; and in some cases, in rural areas, children remain in the same class for
as many as six or seven years. Realizing their inferiority to younger children,
retarded pupils lose self-respect and self-confidence. They are also generallyThis
course s reported to have yielded satisfactory results in certain places, and
such pupils are said to have improved in their educational standing. But, apart
from home or other environmental conditions, retardation of pupils is due to
lack of adjustment between the schoolwork and the individual pupil. Ample
evidence is available to support the conclusion that individuals grouped
together on the basis of age for the purpose of collective instruction differ
from one another in a number of single traits and in all combinations of
traits. The recommendation to promote a pupil to a class made up of other
children of nearly his own age, while it could be adopted in a qualified manner
in primary schools where differentiation of abilities does not clearly manifest
itself, it has no application to secondary schools
Retardation:
Might be due to prolonged
absence from school through illness, to unfavourable home conditions of lack of
opportunities for education, rather than to any inherent mental defects in the
child, and retardation at this stage can be easily made good if there is mental
ability and proper motivation for work. It should be noted in this connection
that for children under ten or eleven years of age individual tests are more
of primary school
should use standardized tests in the fundamental subjects, such as reading,
writing and the simpler processes of arithmetic. But as the attainments ofyoung
children are very low, scholastic tests should be used as only supplementary to
tests of
“intelligence”. But in the secondary grade of
education wider data have to be replied upon; and some methods of discovering
and assessing special abilities and aptitudes, which emerge during this stage
of education have also to be devised so as to realize effectively the aim of
enabling pupils to develop their special abilities, together with general
abilities, up to the required standard.
Multiple
and Composite Basis:
there are,
theoretically speaking, several other bases of classification, such as the
social maturity of children, their physiological growth and their moral and
emotional qualities to industry, perseverance, ambition and interest. The
National Survey of Secondary Education in the USA found sixteen different bases
of grouping (in addition to chronological age) used in 280 schools. But none of
these, taken singly, gives any high correlation with educational achievement;
in other words, no single basis furnishers any aid or guidance in classifying
pupils to form homogeneous groups for the purpose of instruction.
In view of the inadequacy
of any one basis for classification of pupils multiple bases are often employed
as a check against one another. There are the chronological age of the pupils,
their past record as expressed in school marks, their general intelligence in
terms of their intelligence Quotients, and their scholastic achievements as
determined by objective tests. Pupils are ranked on the basis of each of these
criteria, and then divided according to the rank into two three or more groups
according to the number of sections of a class in the school. When, however, it
is found that there is wide variation in the rank of pupil according to the
several bases employed, the teacher’s judgment decides the final placement o
the pupil. There is also another method of classification, called the composite
method, which employs a number of criteria such as physiological development,
general intelligence, achievement in school subject, social maturity, industry,
application, chronological age, etc. Tests are applied in respect of all these
traits, and the raw scores reduced to a composite score, by statistical
methods, on the same scale.
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